Gender Inequality in the Nursing Profession

Gender Inequality in the Nursing Profession Over the past ten years, the profession of nursing has seen an increase to the number of male nurses (Cite). Despite this fact, men still comprise the minority within the nursing profession both in Canada and the United States, in fact, nursing remains one of the most female-dominated occupations. To most individuals, this seems an appropriate if not a natural occurrence as women are more naturally suited to the profession (Cite). Many factors contribute to this bias however, a review of the history of this phenomenon has shown that the first nurses were actually men as opposed to women (Cite). Ironically, women have made enormous strides into previously male-dominated professions, while the movement of men in nursing has been quite the opposite (MacPhail, 1996). Ideas of appropriate behavior according to gender vary among cultures and eras largely due to what society deems appropriate. In the recent past we have seen this concept adapt to the changing needs of our communities throug h the support of the movement of women into male-dominated professions. While this remains a laudable achievement, virtually no support has been given to men to break into professions dominated by women, such as nursing (Cite). Theoretical Perspectives Historically, nursing is considered a single-sex occupation, identified as a role that is inherently natural to the female gender. Thus, it has become identified as a profession deeply embedded in the gender-based power relations of society. Nursing is an occupation established by women; it supports the stereotypical feminine image with traits of nurturing, caring, and gentleness in contrast to masculine characteristics of strength, aggression, and dominance (Evans, 2002). For this reason, occupations requiring these qualities have been considered exclusively suited to women, and labeled womens work. However, the art and science of nursing has not always been a predominantly female profession (Evans, 2004). Men have played a dominant role in organized nursing dating back to 330 A.D. in the Byzantine Empire. During this era, hospitals were one of the major institutions where nursing emerged as a separate occupation, primarily for men. Moreover, military, religious, and lay orders of men known as nurses have a long history of caring for the sick and injured during the Crusades in the llth century (MacPhail, 1996). In the United States, men served as nurses during the Civil War. John Simon, the lesser-known rival of Florence Nightingale, was the founder of an experimental field hospital in Germany during the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Male nurses were hired to staff the hospital, and mortality rates among the troops were kept abnormally low (Evans, 2004). Unfortunately, men were not accepted readily in nursing schools for many years. Interestingly, in 1888, Darius Odgen Mills established the first male nursing school in America, based at Bellevue Hospital in New York City. This school of nursing provided education and training for nurses to care for psychiatric patients. However, it appears that this mens contribution to nursing has been forgotten. This nonrecognition has likewise perpetuated the feminine image of nursing in society and the perception of the male nurse as an anomaly Generally, nursing as we know it today came to be regarded as a womans profession through the efforts initiated and developed by Florence Nightingale during the 19th century. She saw nursing as suitable for women because it was an extension of their domestic role. It was assumed that it was natural for women to become nurses because of their innate caregiving and healing traits; nursing was not a place for men. At that time, more and more women entered the profession of nursing. Nightingales image of the nurse as subordinate, nurturing, domestic, humble, and self-sacrificing, as well as not too educated, became prevalent in society. The ostracization of men in nursing was established. Factors Contributing to Gender Inequality in the Nursing Profession According to several authors, one major barrier that may deter men from entering the profession is nursings traditional image. Nursings image perpetuates cultural understandings and societal attitudes about occupations appropriate for men and women. As such, nursing remains stereotyped as a female occupation. After all, gender-role socialization patterns in society provide examples of ways in which boys and girls are exposed to different role models and different me sages about what is appropriate to each gender. Society has presented men with strong stereotypical boundaries concerning masculine or feminine behavior. Men who choose nursing as a career risk challenging traditional gender-defined roles and stereotypes (Evans, 2002; Nelson Belcher, 2006). These stereotypes-enhanced by social, political, and economic systems-often lead to discrimination for men choosing careers outside their gender. Males appear to encounter more negative criticism from the public on entering female-identified occupations. For example, they are held suspect and penalized for role violation. Furthermore, these traditionally female jobs are perceived by society as a step down in status (Williams, 1992). Accordingly, these beliefs deter men from pursuing nontraditional careers. It is troublesome for some to accept the image of men as caring, compassionate, and gentle. Men wanting to enter the female-identified occupation challenge societys stereotypical image of nursing. Some scholars have argued that caring and nurturing traits are not exclusive to women. These traits, however, are not inherent in the biological and social nature of the sexes, but are cultural constructs reinforced by the social activities associated with being male or female. Evans (2004) maintains that gender and politics have influenced how the responsibility for caring activities has been settled exclusively on women. Actually, this appropriation has influenced how the division of labor is postulated along gender lines, meaning that occupations are socially or culturally defined through constructions of gender. Thus, because ones identity is linked to the sex/gender system in society, it is difficult to rethink the concept of masculinity. As such, men in or aspiring to female-dominated professions are evaluated less positively by society than their female colleagues in male-dominated occupations (Williams, 1992). These views restrict career choice and sustain societal stereotypes, inhibiting men from entering the nursing profession. Nursing Images The traditional image of the nurse has been supported through the use of symbols such as the angel, battle-ax, sex symbol, or doctors handmaiden, and, most notably, nurses as women. These images, based on female attributes and values, have been used by interpersonal and mass communication, reinforcing the stereotypes of nurses as women. These behaviors and attitudes are further strengthened by the exclusion of men in any recruitment and promotional materials depicting the profession of nursing. Evans (2004) argues for a shift away from the womanly traits associated with the old Nightingale image of the nurse, the basis for the feminine stereotype of nursing that is still evident today. When the nurse is a man, societal images of the caregiver role are not associated with the gender. For example, Williams (1995) conducted in-depth interviews with 32 men employed in nursing. One nurse reported that a teacher at a day-care center told his daughter that her father could not be a nurse, and insisted that he must be a doctor. Thus, nursing has been socially constructed as an occupation requiring gender traits that are associated with feminine, regardless of the sex of its individual members. In a study of 126 male high school students using a career questionnaire, Barkley and Kohler (1992) investigated opinions about nursing. The teenagers surveyed held a positive view of men in nursing. Seventy-three percent rejected the idea that only women should be nurses, and 77% thought that male nurses are not wimps. Evans (2002) surveyed 25 male nurses to investigate the perceptions of being a male nurse. The most prevalent negative factor identified was sex stereotyping resulting from the general perception that nursing is a female profession. According to Kleinman (2004), language and images are dominant forces, which may have the effect of marginalizing any group. Subsequently, for centuries men in nursing have been excluded from the language and image of nursing, therefore from its history. As such, he believes nursing practice has been sexualized. It could be argued that the label of nursing as womens work is a significant deterrent that inhibits recruitment of men into the profession and aids promotion of the sex imbalance in the nursing workforce. Because of their gender, male nurses have been prohibited from working in specific clinical areas, such as maternal/infant child care. These beliefs have been supported by court decisions; however, there are no restrictions on the practice of female nurses with male patients. These attitudes tend to succor sexism in the profession, affecting the recruitment of men. Williams (1992) claims that cultural barriers are more pronounced in the medias representation of mens occupations. She contends that women in traditionally male professions have achieved acceptance on popular television programs. Today, women are portrayed as doctors, lawyers, and architects, but where are the male nurses, teachers, and secretaries? These beliefs are reinforced by language used in nursing. Women in nursing are simply nurses, not female nurses; however, men in nursing are frequently identified as male nurses. These images, perceptions, and language influence societal views of the nurse. This, too, leads to the marginalization of men nurses and fortification of negative stereotypes. Kleinman (2004) stated that the work belongs to neither sex. By excluding males, such messages constitute a critical barrier to men considering nursing as a career. This fact is reflected in the invisibility of men in the profession. This is demonstrated in the example of a 1997 photo feature called Nurses at the Bedside in the American Journal of Nursing. Of the 15 pictures of the nurse caring and working with clients, none shows a man. This assessment substantiates the invisibility of mens contributions and visibility in the profession. Moreover, such findings nourish societys stereotypical image of nursing as a feminine occupation, negatively affecting recruitment of men into the profession. According to Evans (2002), The hope for change lies in challenging and transforming hegemonic notions of masculinity and femininity (p. 230). Sex-Related Stereotypes Another commonly held stereotype concerning men who choose nursing as a career is that they are effeminate or gay (Williams, 1995). According to Williams, it is assumed by society that in order to be a nurse, female attributes such as a capacity to serve, empathize, and nurture are required. Hence, men who nurse must be feminine and are regarded as gay. Although there are a number of gay men in the profession, this stereotype forms a major obstacle to many heterosexual men who might otherwise consider pursuing a career in nursing (Nelson Belcher, 2006; Trossman, 2003). Williams (1992) also suggests that the stigma associated with homosexuality leads some men to enhance or magnify their masculine qualities. Using focus groups, Williams (1995) investigated the experience of being a male student nurse. All participants reported that nursing is viewed as a womens profession, and several stated a fear of being perceived as unmanly by their peers or by clients. These beliefs fostered among the men a view that the profession is a threat to their masculinity. Subsequently, these men felt a need to show their wedding ring or to mention their wife and children in order to acknowledge their heterosexuality. In addition, the labeling of male nurses as effeminate or homosexual can be interpreted as a social control mechanism that redefines nursing as womans work. This signifies that male nurses are different from other men. Consequently, as a result of these attitudes and perceptions, one can understand why nursing remains an occupation low on career choice for males. Economic Factors Another factor suggested as contributing to mens underrepresentation in nursing is the low economic status, pay, and value given to nursing in comparison to male occupations (Kleinman, 2004). Overall, social and economic inducements for women to enter male-dominated professions are lacking for men who may contemplate careers in female-dominated areas. Moreover, he believes that current cutbacks in healthcare funding may deter some men who might otherwise have considered a nursing career. Historically, nursing is considered to be a natural extension of a womans role in society. As a result of this notion, it is considered a low-value occupation (Williams, 1992). It is well known that the average income of men is well above that of women. Accordingly, these findings support the view that jobs customarily held by women are devalued. Williams (1995) argues that the economic value of other major disciplines and that of nurses reinforces the limited value attached to the role of the nurse. Consequently, the separation, isolation, and labeling of certain roles as womens or mens roles in both traditional and modern society reflect the patriarchal social structure. Barkley and Kohler (1992) administered a career questionnaire to 126 male high school students, grades 9 to 12. Findings indicated that most rejected nursing as a future career because of their beliefs about nurs economic status. Sixty-two percent of the subjects surveyed did not think that nurses made high salaries, and 46% believed that nurses do not get paid well. These researchers concluded that in order for nursing to compete financially with other male-dominated professions, salary discrepancies need to be changed. In spite of changes in nursing education today, in practice, social attitudes valuing mens work over womens work are still apparent (Kleinman, 2004). Traditionally, the female role has a lower value in society, thus the importance of a nurses value is not reflected by economic rewards. These resilient attitudes have been reinforced through gender socialization, leading to less status and power for nurses within society. In a similar study, using in-depth interviews, Williams (1992) examined the barriers to mens entry into three female-dominated professions: social work, nursing, and teaching. Participants felt they were all underpaid relative to comparable male occupations. Moreover, several of the respondents suggested that instituting a comparable-worth policy might attract more men to these professions. Even so, nursing is still recognized as a female profession, and, in general, womens roles in society continue to be less valued as reflected in social status and financial compensation. Strategies to Promote Equality How would nursing look today if it had remained a male-dominated profession? Would nursing enjoy greater prestige, power and status than it receives today? How would nursing practice and education differ? Would there have been a revolution in the profession as more and more females entered nursing, as they have in other traditionally male-dominated professions? Strategies to Recruit More Men to the Profession Currently, the realities of healthcare cutbacks have had a negative impact on the nursing profession. As a result, nursing education programs are attracting fewer students. Admission levels are now lower than they have been in decades (Trossman, 2003). These facts may provide an opportunity to recruit an available source of male applicants into the profession. Such recruitment efforts may lead to increasing support and enrollment of men in the profession. Undertaking these endeavors might help eliminate the societal barriers and perceptions of nursing as a sex-typed occupation. Presently, several people in Canada and the United States are predicting that a nursing shortage is looming. Both countries could face a registered nursing shortage by the year 2011. Since the profession is still largely female dominated, it is recruiting almost exclusively from one half of the population. Likewise, because of falling birthrates, aging workforce, and shrinking recruitment pools, the nursing pool is not renewing itself at a sufficient rate. Furthermore, enrollment in baccalaureate programs has been declining for several years. It is suggested that this may be due to students reluctance to enroll because of hospital right-sizing and healthcare cutbacks. Meanwhile, many women are not considering nursing as a career, opting to pursue nontraditional careers. Other professions such as medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy have seen a steady growth in gender equality; nursing has not been so fortunate. The tendency to consider nursing as a single-sex occupation has to end. Active recruitment of young males in high schools and colleges may be a new means of addressing nursing shortages. They provide an untapped pool of nursing school applicants (Trossman, 2003). Because nurses enter a profession, which naturally maintains and reflects societys sex stereotypes, it is important that strategies attack both the myths and barriers (Kleinman, 2004). Accordingly, general acceptance of nursing as a viable career for men requires input and promotion by nurse educators, administrators, professionals associations, unions, and government. Marketing nursing to men requires a concentrated effort by all interested stakeholders to break down the socially constructed, stereotypical myths and barriers to help change the perception of nursing as a sex-typed occupation. Thus, nursing schools, professional associations, and governments must reach out to the schools in the community. Here they have an excellent opportunity to educate all students about nursing as a career choice. One endeavor to correct the public image is the development and promotion of career education materials that promote sex equity. This information can be supplied to children and adolescents in schools, providing them an opportunity to acquire a realistic understanding of the nursing profession. School counsellors influence career choice; however, information provided by counselors to students about nursing is limited and often inaccurate. Research has found that counselors experience misconceptions about nursing (Barkley Kohler, 1992). Thus, they are not likely to advise academically capable male and female students to pursue a career in nursing. For this reason, a re-education of high school counselors about the nursing profession is important in aiding recruitment of future nurses of both genders. Nursing associations could target school counselors individually, give presentations, and emphasize the positive aspects of the profession for both male and female students. Such attempts will produce a population of wellinformed high school counselors to aid recruitment of future nurses (Nelson Belcher, 2006). Studies have shown that nursing schools have shunned men by paying little attention to targeting and retaining men as a source of nursing school applicants (MacPhail, 1996). Consequently, campaigns to recruit male high school and college students into nursing programs must become a priority. Schools of nursing should employ higher numbers of male nursing faculty to be role models for male nursing students. Nurses and nursing organizations must wage an effective public media campaign to correct the image and the publics perception of the nurse. Furthermore, hospitals, nursing schools, and other health agencies need to portray men in the role of nurse in their publicity materials. Recruitment, promotional advertisement posters, and brochures should not portray only the female image of the nurse. Another endeavor is the monitoring of the media for sexist images of the nurse, eliminating sexist language from nursing journals, texts, nursing conferences, and other personal communications (MacPhail, 1996; Kleinman, 2004). Elimination of sexist language and images of nurses might help change the deeply entrenched societal stereotypes about nursing. Recruiters should emphasize the positive aspects of nursing in all media communications to the public. Most important, involving male nursing students in recruitment efforts and making them visible in recruitment materials and publications may increase mens representation in the profession. However, the active recruitment of men into nursing should not be viewed as a panacea. Other recruiting strategies would be to encourage professional journals and other literature to portray men nurses in their advertising. Finally, an improvement of pay scales might help make nursing a more attractive occupation for both genders. This would involve the cooperation of nurses, government, and nursing unions through collective bargaining. Although the literature has identified a long history of men in nursing, their contribution has not been recognized. Nursing is still seen as a role that is inherently natural to females. Many factors have deterred men from entering the profession, and one of the main barriers keeping them away is the wellentrenched societal stereotypes associated with nursing. Even though women and men are socialized differently, both genders have the caring and nurturing characteristics required for nursing. Societal attitudes have aligned these traits exclusively to the female gender. With the changes currently taking place in the healthcare system, nursing needs to recruit the best candidates, regardless of gender, who have the potential to develop their knowledge and skill in caring for individuals. To attract and retain more men will require a concentrated effort not only for those within nursing, but by other stakeholders as well. Nursing must be the forerunner in breaking and correcting the b arriers that impede the entry of men into the profession. As these barriers are broken, career options and choices in nontraditional careers may increase for both sexes (Trossman, 2003). Conclusion Altogether one might believe that nursing is one of the most important jobs in the medical field based on the reputable history it has, its diversity, and its growing demand. One might also believe that nursing is a very important job due to the fact that people will always need health care. No matter whether it is female or male nursing is more than just caring for the sick, it is not only giving care to the patient but also caring about the patient and his or her well-being.

Globalization in Brazil Essay

Globalization undoubtedly is the current prevailing world economic trend. A large majority of the countries adhere to the tenets of globalization. Globalization literally entails international economic cooperation achieved through the integration of different countries. It envokes the process of intermingling the different aspects of a country’s economy, politics, society, culture and technological forces together with the other participants of globalization. Globalization also creates a link towards the infusion of the local and national economies to create an international market economy, which is done by setting up means for capital inflows, reducing tariffs to give way to trade and foreign investment, migration and even technology sharing. The term globalization was first used during 1980s, though its concepts were not as pronounced as it is until the later parts of 1980s and 1990s. However, traces of the concepts globalization can be dated back in the early centuries, as seen in the ancient discoveries of new colonies and lands. There are three waves of globalization, the first wave which took place between 1870 – 1914; second wave during 1945 – 1980 and the third wave from 1980 until the present. The first wave of globalization was triggered by the decrease in transport costs, which enabled countries to quickly and cheaply transport their products. This had significantly increased export share in the world income. In addition, migration resulted to the influx and increase of labor force, which reached 10% of the total world population. However, though there was a significant increase in the trade and labor force during the first wave of globalization, there were still problems with regards to trade and services that surfaced in the global economy. These problems were due to the implementation of several policies like economic protectionism, which hindered the spread of internationalism amongst countries (Silva, pp. 4-5). Despite the impetus caused by economic nationalism, on the eve of the second wave of globalization, countries were persuaded back towards international cooperation. Hence, trade barriers that were previously imposed were reduced. At this point, trade was doubled relative to the world income. In addition, specialization within countries greatly helped in the achieving interdependence among countries, thus increasing world income. At the end of this period, in contrast to the first wave of globalization, the second wave brought in equity amongst countries (Silva, pp. 6-7. ) And lastly, the third wave of globalization took event during 1980s. This wave had been specially distinctive among all the turns of globalization. It was triggered by the recent advances in communication and transport, coupled with the choice of more advanced countries to seek for new investment opportunities and completely open their economy towards the international market and trade (Dollar, n. p). Moreover, during this period, a large number of developing countries had advanced to power, breaking into global markets; while on the other hand, there was a significant increase of marginalized countries suffering even greatly from declining national income thus increasing poverty in the area (Silva, p. 7). As such, there had been a variety of reasons on how globalization affected the processes in each country. However, the most encouraging effect it wavered upon the developing countries is that it significantly hastened labor abundance which gave national economies a highly competitive advantage in the manufacture and service industries (Silva, p. 8). This in turn benefited some of the countries and was able to keep pace with the advancing world. The newly industrialized and developing countries started breaking into industrial markets capitalizing on infrastructures, technology and other means of production needs. This resulted to a relatively high rate of increase in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which is the current determinant of a country’s economy success rate. Further, most of these developing countries increased their incomes by 104% since the start of 1980; though the rest of other countries who weren’t able to keep the pace were left staggering behind (Silva, p. 10). The world economy has indeed seen the effects of globalization on two sides: positive effects for the developing countries who were kept on tide by the benefits of policies imposed upon by the proponents of globalization; and the other, the immediate victims of these policies suffered within the less developed countries who weren’t able to keep abreast with the changes. Brazil was one of those who benefited the era of globalization, but as such they have been victims at first. Consequently, recent developments have proven that while globalization presented certain benefits for Brazil, Brazil has quite not been able to enjoy the expected benefits from it. Brazil: On a Staggering Start There had been crisis that had risen out of the emerging influence of globalization which created a great impact among the countries that played afar according to its calls. Brazil in 1999, was one of the countries to experience the adverse effect it had on world economy, but were able to pick up from the slump that it caused (Silva, p. 8). One of the difficulties that Brazil faced amidst the emergence of globalization was the crisis in capital. Brazil had used a pegged currency, which had put them in a crisis of fiscal and external debt. And though Brazil had tried to adopt a more responsible fiscal policy, their enormous debt teamed with low export and GDP and overvalued currency, all resulted to a capital crisis in 1999 (Silva, p. 20). Though Brazil was expected of becoming one of the successful countries developing during this era, they didn’t perform at the same rate expected of them. Though Brazil possessed clear indicators of progress, Brazil, economically did not perform the development anticipated from it. The period between 1980 – 1990 was known to be a â€Å"lost decade† for the Southern Americans, Brazil in particular. Wherein, during this era, per capita output was negative 0. 6% in a year, which has comparably decreased from the 3. 6% performance during the previous decade (Fraga, n. p). Hence the main difficulties suffered by Brazil at the start of 1980 were due to the series of unsuccessful plans at trying to curb inflation. The main reason behind this failure can be attributed to the fact that the development model used by the military government on Brazil was based upon cheap oil resources and capital, coupled with the inability of such policies to address the other basic necessities like having a sound fiscal and monetary policies. Let alone was that their development started from the capital crisis they suffered in 1999. As result they had to endure high debt and insufficient supply of oil due to high prices. Hence their effort of generating trade surplus to cover up for it then resulted to a high inflation rate (Fraga, n. p. and Silva, pp. 20-22). Brazil: On the New Start In the 20th century, Brazil made a significant progress and was among the best performing countries in the century. Brazil was among the top 12 emerging markets that experienced massive increase in the capital inflows, whose GDP increased to as much as 22%, contributing greatly in the world economy. Accordingly, alongside the increase in capital inflows, technology greatly improved thus making an entrance towards the international market a lot easier (Silva, p. 12). Brazil in case had developed EMBRAER. The existence of such company marked their willingness to compete in an open trade and investment. This equipped Brazil with an oligopolistic or monopolistic nature of a company, possessing highly advanced technology that soared above the standards of their products, thus bringing in heaps of profits for their economy (Silva, p. 18). Consequently, this had widely created a positive impact on overall growth of their investments. More so, at the start of 1990, Brazil started to liberalize their economy. Brazilian leaders opted to negotiate and redefine their economic policies to keep pace with the globalization trends (Langevin, n. p). They lifted trade barriers, import tariffs and quotas, and adopted reforms both economic and administrative ones. These policies included fixing the Brazilian currency to dollars, which helped put inflation at a halt. Economic reforms were done such that these were geared towards being more market-driven, highly flexible, with a more decentralized economic environment. In this regard, they transformed old provisional measures into creating a single trade law which was meant to make a more transparent set of policies that can speed up the process of making reforms and laws. Accordingly, this kind of reforms also allowed an economic policy geared towards favoring exports rather than producing own their own products for their country (â€Å"Brazil: November 2000,† n. p). Another step they took was implementing an austere fiscal policy and privatizing several companies, all of which were consistent with liberalizing their economy. Thus, although Brazil experienced several high inflation rate in the past years, and that most of their GDP was wasted with the inflation of goods and services; nonetheless, their per capita income had increased by a third from the last decade. Hence, after experiencing years of economic recession, Brazil recovered and started a fast growing cycle in the 1990s (Silva, pp. 40-41). Consequently though, expectators attributed the improvements in the Brazilian economy towards their inclination for liberalizing their trade and market activity. Through these changes that Brazil implemented in their economic policies, their economic activity fairly improved and they achieved their prospect growth for year 2000. Several factors that contributed to this growth which they attributed to liberalizing trade relations are as follows: (1) inflation has been pegged within the government target of 8%; (2) foreign direct investment (FDI) significantly increased from its usual value in 1996; (3) trade and GDP has been kept at stable 20%; and (4) Brazil remained to be the largest exporter of some widely used agricultural products. However, there were several economic slumps again experienced by Brazil. The outbreak of Asian crisis in 1997 forced the Brazilian currency to devalue to keep the inflation low. But nonetheless, Brazil was fast to recover and started growing again by the year 2000. Consequently new policies and austerity programs that the Brazilian government adopted kept them at pace of development. These programs had better kept them away from experiencing the economic slumps they had in the previous years. More importantly, these kept them away from acquiring debts and helped stabilize the ratio of debts to GDP. Moreover, to speak of progress is to speak of the quality at how the citizens lived comfortably within their mother country. Hence, the United Nations’ measure of Human Development Index (HDI) in Brazil widely soared up within the past 26 years. That even though the increase in national income cannot suffice alone to the improvement of the country as a whole, the poverty level in Brazil decreased significantly, and education and proper healthcare had well been provided among the Brazilians. The young Brazilian population had become highly educated, with more children being enrolled in schools, and ensuring that the Brazilian safety net always kept abreast with their population through the government’s initiative on providing their citizens with an apt nutrition program. In addition, social integration and cooperation amongst different ethnicities is an indicator of social progress. More so, Brazil also made great improvements in the field of political stability. The establishment and strengthening of a democratic system in the country is a well indicator of the country’s leaders to provide the general public a sense of working and legitimate judiciary and legislative system. However, given these factors and internal growth that Brazil has experienced over the past decades, in comparison to other neighboring countries Brazil’s economic performance is still insufficient and is still lacking to what is expected of them. Although the poverty rate of Brazil has signifcantly decreased over the past two decades, from 40% in 1970s to 36% in 2000, poverty rate in Brazil is still high in comparison to other develping countries (Mario and Woolcock, p. 2). The Brazilian Action In a nutshell, though the Brazilian economy presently comprises one third of the total Latin American production through the large conglomerates of various sectors such as mining, oil, iron and steel, and manufacturing, their economic growth is still less of what was expected of them. Given what seems to be like a hegemonic existence within their region, their growth rate remained below the average expectation. And contrastingly though, Brazil lagged behind Chile, Venezuela, Argentina and Peru. Though the Brazilian economy has seemed to be able to progress within the past years, their performance still has not reached the full blast. They have not yet enjoyed the full outcome of a rich economy. And consequently, the benefits that they get from a globalized economy is yet to be sufficient to call it successful (Luchino, n. p). Fixed capital product has greatly hindered the potential growth for Brazil. Fixed rates have been used to control inflation, however, as a result it limited Brazil’s opportunity to grow simultaneously at the same rate as that with other developing countries. Nowadays, the economy of Brazil is expected to complete a very competitive cycle. Their external and public debts had been declining, their GDP continues to be strong and growing, there have been significant increase in the export and as well as a positive trend capital inflows. Thus in analyzing the growth of Brazilian economy, the adversaries they suffered during the third wave of globalization were due to the fact that they were highly indebted with their economy limping from high inflation rates. More so, they had policies that weren’t appropriate to equip them within a fast paced economy that globalization is holding. Hence, at the event that Brazil started to liberalize their economy and open up their market towards the international market, and changed most of its economic policies to suit the needs for an international market competition, they at least were able to give birth to a new start as an international player. Indeed, though the Brazilian economy made a significant advancement towards microeconomic stability since being able to adopt helpful reforms in the 1990s, still, the pace at which their economy is growing is a matter of great concern. As such, compared to other countries and competitors which developed simultaneously as Brazil had in the past decades, Brazil is still trailing behind. To be able to reap the full benefits that a globalized world promises, Brazil must be aware of certain measures to ensure their success. First, debt management should be given extra attention. Analyzing the economic status of Brazil would suggest that Brazil is still highly indebted. Thus a more appropriate debt management policy should be adopted which will in turn be reflected with the country’s projected GDP growth as well as the other economic indicators. Second, Brazil’s trade policies should be kept more open towards the international economy. Presently, Brazil’s trade is still relatively closed. Their exports account to 13% of their GDP and 9% for their imports, which is comparably low for international standards. Thus, Brazil must work more on keeping these lines open to create a bigger space for their trade rate to grow. Finally, among the aspects that Brazil should work on is their infrastructures. As the means of transportation is highly significant for the growth of a country, Brazil shouldn’t leave this aspect of country’s growth in poor condition. More investments should be made to improve transportation, as well as increase their country’s interest on developing energy generating infrastructures (Silva, pp. 43-46). Furthermore, wherein economic growth is an interplay of physical resources and human capital, aside from the financial and monetary aspects, there are still six other important areas that Brazil should prioritize for them to be able to reach the full blast of their economy. These are: (1) enbaling an environment conducive for learning and growth; (2) creating wider array for knowledge creation and commercialization; (3) acquisition of knowledge from more advanced countries; (4) advancement and proper dissemination of technology; (5) improvement in the basic education; and (6) giving priority to tertiary education (Rodriguez, p. 4). Thus, for Brazil to reach the full potential of their country, they must utilize not only the raw and fixed natural resources within the country. They must learn how to develop the potential of their human resources, because the people will be the one to stir their national development. If they bank on the human capital and innovation, it could greatly increase the level of competitiveness given that they could develop more talented individuals to maneuver the country’s growth. Therefore, if given the consideration for the work force to grow, improvement of education, enhancement of technology and innovation – altogether these can provide a proper link for productivity (Luchino, n. p). With these tools, the Brazilian economy can reach another step for growth to increase investment and keep GDP at a stable rate. Works Cited â€Å"Brazil: November 2000. † 1 November 2002. World Trade Organization. 24 February 2008 Dollar, David. â€Å"Questions and Answers with David Dollar. † Globalization. 5 April 2008 Fraga, Arminio. â€Å"A Fork in the Road. † 2005 December. Finance and Development. 8 April 2008 Langevin, Mark. â€Å"Brazil’s Key Role in Globalization. † 12 October 2004. Brazzil Magazine. 24 February 2008 Luchino, Marcelo. â€Å"The Globalization of Brazil. † 27 December 2007. Safe Democray. 8 April 2008 Mario, Estanislao Gacitua and Michael Woolcock. â€Å"Assessing Social Exlusion and Mobility in Brazil. † The World Bank. 8 April 2008 Rodriguez, Alberto. â€Å"Brazil: Seizing the Opportunity to Compete? † The World Bank. 8 April 2008. Silva, Antonio Elias. Openness and Development: A General Analysis and a Close Look at China, Argentina and Brazil. Institute of Brazilian Issues, April 2004.

Social Class and Inequality

Social Class and Inequality Social inequality has been defined as a conflicting status within a society with regards to the individual, property rights, and access to education, medical care, and welfare programs. Much of society’s inequality can be attributed to the class status of a particular group, which has usually been largely determined by the group’s ethnicity or race (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). The conflict perspective is an attempt to understand the group conflict that occurs by the protection of one’s status at the expense of the other.One group will resort to various means to preserve a ideal social status through socioeconomic prestige, consolidation of power (political and financial), and control of resources. In Canada, even though its impact is frequently minimized, social inequality exists, but because the majority of citizens associate exclusively with members of their own class, they are often unaware of the significant role social inequality co ntinues to play (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). An inadequate distribution of wealth remains â€Å"an important component† of Canada’s social inequities (Macionis & Gerber, 2006).Wealth can be defined as the amount of money or material items that an individual, family, or group controls and ultimately determines the status of a particular class (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). Canada’s social classes can be divided into four, and the wealth is not distributed equally between them. First, there is the predominantly Anglo upper class, in which most of the wealth has been inherited; and they comprise of approximately 3-to-5 percent of the Canadian population (Macionis & Gerber, 2006).Next, there is the middle class, which is made up of the greatest number of Canadians, nearly 50 percent with ‘upper-middle’ class subdivisions generating white-collar incomes of between $50,000 and $100,000 while the rest are earning reasonable livings in less prestigious white- col lar jobs or as skilled blue-collar laborers (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). The working class represents about 33 percent of the Canadian population, and their lower incomes leave little in the way of savings (Macionis & Gerber, 2006).Finally, there is the lower class, which is represented by about 20 percent of the population (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). Among these are the so-called working poor whose incomes alone are not sufficient enough for adequate food or shelter (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). Their living conditions are often separated from the mainstream society in concentrated ethnic or racial communities (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). The most impoverished members of this class are unable to generate any income and are completely reliant upon government welfare programs.One of the primary deciding factors as to what determines wealth, power, and social status is occupational prestige (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). For example, in Canada, physicians and lawyers continue to reside at the top of the social ladder while newspaper delivery persons or hospitality staff rank at the bottom (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). The growing disparity in income is beginning to resemble that of the United States with approximately 43. percent of the Canadian income being concentrated within the top 20 percent of social spectrum while those in the bottom 20 percent are receiving a mere 5. 2 percent of that income (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). Nearly 16 percent of Canadians were categorized as being â€Å"below the poverty line† in the mid-1990s, and every month, close to a million people rely upon food banks to feed their families (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). The income a particular class earns is determined in large part to the amount of education received, and yet in order to receive a higher education money is required.There is also a strong correlation between income and healthcare. The higher the income, the greater the number of quality medical services there are available (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). The wealthy or upper middle classes can afford specialized care that isn’t typically covered by a provinces general health care plan, thus widening the gap of equality between the social classes. Within the boundary of the Canadian border we can see the separation between ethnicity, and wealth which determines class.Studies show that predominately the British and French Canadians earn the highest levels of income whereas the Africans, certain Asian groups, Latin Americans, and Aboriginals consistently rank near the bottom (Macionis & Gerber, 2006). In recent years, there has been an increase in income inequality with the 14 percent of impoverished Canadians in the lower social classes of families headed by single mothers, female senior citizens, indigenous peoples, and the recent influx of immigrants (Reutter, Veenstra, Stewart, Raphael, Love, Makwarimba, and McMurray, 2006).Because of social exclusion, poverty is perpetuated with certain groups consistently shut out of the opportunities that might better equalize the social scales (Reutter et al, 2006). Canadian sociologist John Porter’s focused nearly entirely on power and class, his breakthrough research was published as The Vertical Mosaic: An Analysis of Social Class and Power in Canada in 1965 (Driedger, 2001).Porter explored the impact of race and ethnicity upon social mobility and noted that Canadian social history has been determined by ‘charter groups,’ mainly the English and the French situated in Ontario and Quebec, while the English were widely dispersed in both rural and urban locales, becoming increasingly urbanized as a result of industrialization and the fortunes being made, the Quebecois group was nearly exclusively rural in geography and philosophy (Driedger, 2001).Power examined how power relationships developed along social class lines and how the conflict among these charter groups influenced differences in social classes (Driedger, 2001). Acco rding to Hier & Walby (2006), Porter presented the argument that â€Å"an ‘entrance status’ is assigned to less preferred immigrant groups (particularly southern and eastern Europeans†¦ that restricts collective gains in education, income, and membership among Canada's elite† (p. 83). This entrance status was, in Porter’s view, strong enough to create a social barrier not unlike India’s caste system (Hier ; Walby, 2006).A decade later, Porter drew similar conclusions when he noted that his Canadian census job stratification study revealed, â€Å"Ethnicity serves as a deterrent to social mobility† (as cited in Driedger, 2001, p. 421). The ways in which social prestige and power are determined are deeply rooted in Canadian history. For instance, 1867’s British North America Act gave the British and the French the distinction of being a charter group that entitled them to a power, prestige (and of course wealth) that other groups wer e automatically denied unless they displayed a similar pedigree Driedger, 2001). The charter languages and cultures, though separate, would afford these members with exclusive privileges (Driedger, 2001). They would have automatic access to society, while other groups would have to battle for entrance and to secure status. Therefore, while a few managed to break through, most ethnic groups were consistently refused entrance. For this reason, they were forced to take jobs of low class status and their degree of assimilation into Canadian society would be determined by the charter members (Driedger, 2001).There is a sharp distinction between industry and finance in terms of ownership of financial resources. The bankers exert the most social control, and because they have been historically more interested in protecting their own interests, the indigenous industrialized groups have been discouraged (Panitch, 1985). Southern Ontario remains the wealthy hub of the Canada’s industri al sector, while the indigenous groups and other lower classes remain both regionally and socially isolated (Panitch, 1985).Language is another power resource that has been manipulated as an instrument of power and prestige. While the French have long been a charter of Canadian society, as in the United States, being culturally separate has not meant equality in terms of class status. In the years following World War II, the French Canadians of Quebec have sought greater independence (Driedger, 2001). Their discontent resulted in the establishment of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in 1963, which emphasized the notion of an â€Å"equal partnership† (Driedger, 2001, p. 21). Even though charter dualism is not articulated in the Canadian constitution, the Quebec provincials believed that their one-third French-speaking status along with the growing number of languages spoken by non-charter members warranted a reclassification to at the very least bilingual ism and at the most, an acknowledgement of multiculturalism that would remove existing cultural barriers and provide greater social access. These efforts have thus fall fallen short, and therefore Quebec annexation may one day become a reality.Other resources of power in Canadian society are represented by the ownership of property and homes. In Canada as in most parts of North America, homes represent wealth because of the â€Å"forced savings, investment appreciation, and protection against inflation† it represents (Gyimah, Walters, ; Phythian, 2005, p. 338). Owning a home offers â€Å"a sense of belonging† or inclusion for immigrant classes that is unlike anything else (Gyimah, Walters, ; Phythian, 2005, p. 338).But not surprisingly, Gyimah et al (2005) have discovered, â€Å"Rates of ownership have been found to vary considerably by ethnicity and immigration status† (p. 338). There is, interestingly, a structure among immigrant classes that impacts on the ac cess to these resources with the immigrants who settled in Canada earlier enjoying much higher rates of home ownership than new immigrant arrivals (Gyimah et al, 2005). The lone exception is the Hong Kong business entrepreneurs that relocated to Canada when the Chinese regained control of the area (Gyimah et al, 2005).They had accumulated enough wealth in Hong Kong to bypass traditional barriers and secure housing usually reserved for charter members. On the opposite end of the spectrum, home ownership rates are lowest among the Blacks and Aboriginal classes (Gyimah et al, 2005). According to a study Henry, Tator, Mattis, and Rees conducted in 2002, â€Å"In spite of the historical and contemporary evidence of racism as a pervasive and intractable reality in Canada †¦ itizens and institutions function in a state of collective denial† (as cited in Hier ; Walby, 2006, p. 83). Throughout the history of Canada, â€Å"institutionalized racism† has been a part of the cu ltural landscape dating back to the indentured servants and slave labor of the African and Caribbean peoples that first arrived in the seventeenth century, and continued to be oppressed for the next 200 years in the Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Quebec provinces (Hier ; Walby, 2006).The fur trade justified this enslavement and the Federal Indian Act revisions of the mid-twentieth century continued to treat certain races in a subordinate manner (Hier ; Walby, 2006). Those deemed more primitive were oppressed because of social perceptions of their â€Å"savagery, inferiority, and cultural weakness† (Hier ; Walby, 2006, p. 83). Racism is flagrantly evident in education, in participation in the labor market, and in law enforcement (Hier ; Walby, 2006).When Ruck and Wortley studied the perceptions of high school students regarding school discipline through a questionnaire issued to nearly 2,000 Toronto students in grades 10 through 12, the ethnic groupings of Black/Afri can, Asian/South Asian, White European, and Other revealed that their perceptions of discipline discrimination were significantly higher than those students of White European backgrounds (Hier ; Walby, 2006). Therefore, not surprisingly, these students were more likely to drop out of school and be denied any hope of receiving a well-paying job.Lower social classes were also relegated to low-paying jobs because of purportedly lacking â€Å"‘Canadian’ work experience† and a lack of English language comprehension (Hier ; Walby, 2006, p. 83). In a 2001 study by Austin and Este, the immigrant males they interviewed reported that because the power and resources are so tightly controlled by the White Canadian majority, their foreign employment experiences were minimized and they were blocked from taking the training programs that would have improved their language proficiency (Hier ; Walby, 2006).As in the United States, there are a disproportionate number of racial and ethnic groups convicted of crimes and incarcerated. This is believed to be due to racial profiling in law enforcement that tips the scales of justice away from people of color. According to a Royal Commission survey, the majority of respondents believe police are prejudiced against Black Canadians (Hier ; Walby, 2006). Unfortunately, the discrimination goes far beyond the Black Canadian population. The Aboriginal population provides a contemporary case study that reflects the impact of racism upon social inequality of Canada.The 2001 Canadian census lists a total of 976,310 Aboriginal peoples throughout the territories and provinces (Adelson, 2005). Of those, more than 600,000 are Native Americans – referred to as First Nations – and live mostly in the provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan (Adelson, 2005). The Metis group live in the western sections of these provinces and total around 292,000 (Adelson, 2005). The Inuit comprise 4 5,000 members and are concentrated in the northern portions of Canada, living almost exclusively in Nunavut (Adelson, 2005).These peoples have been the victims of racist social attitudes dating back to 1876’s Indian Act, in which colonization was officially determined through First Nations recognition status (Adelson, 2005). This affects the Native Americans and the Inuit (as a result of a 1939 amendment to the Act), but the Metis are not forced to register to achieve a â€Å"recognition of status† (Adelson, 2005, p . 45). What this means is that those Aboriginal groups that live on government controlled reserves continue to receive government services while those who decide to venture off of these reserves do not (Adelson, 2005).Those groups are deprived of the education and basic skills that would enable them to improve their status. In comparison to non-Aborigines, the Aboriginal groups often fail to complete their education at every level, which further reduces the ir opportunities (Adelson, 2005). In a 2002 study of off-reserve Aboriginals, less than half percent of these children complete the twelfth grade (Adelson, 2005). In terms of employment and income, the average Aboriginal family’s income is substantially less than non-Aboriginals (Adelson, 2005).In 1991, the average Aboriginal income was $12,800, which was about half of the income of Canada’s non-Aboriginals (Adelson, 2005). Sociologists attribute the disparities in employment and income due to ethnic discrimination in the workplace, the lack of education accorded indigenous groups, the loss of property, and the â€Å"cultural genocide† they are forced to commit if they wish to assimilate (Adelson, 2005, p. 45). This â€Å"circle of disadvantage† results in the Aboriginals being mired in poverty and forced to take low- paying migrant jobs that are often seasonal and provide nothing in the way of employment security (Adelson, 2005, p. 5). Solely on the basi s of their ethnicity, these peoples are relegated to the social periphery and are deprived of anything remotely resembling power, prestige, or wealth. In terms of their living conditions, many of the Aboriginal peoples are overcrowded, with 53 percent of the Inuit peoples and 17 percent of the Aboriginals living off-reserve living more than one person per room (Adelson, 2005). This is in comparison to 7 percent of white Canadians of European origin (Adelson, 2005).In addition, Aboriginal homes are; twice as likely to be sorely in need of major repairs; about 90 times more likely to have no access to safe water supplied by pipes; five times more likely to have no type of bathroom facilities; and ten times more likely to have a toilet that does not flush (Adelson, 2005, p. 45). The Aborigines that do not live in government housing are exposed to appalling threats to their health and hygiene resulting from inferior housing, which has adversely affected their life expectancies (Adelson, 2005).Despite their high adult mortality, the aboriginal population also has a high birth rate (Adelson, 2005). However, this also means their infant mortality rate is also higher than the national average. According to 1999 statistics, infant mortality rates were 8 out of 100 among First Nations’ peoples, which is 1. 5 times higher than the overall Canadian rate of infant mortality (Adelson, 2005). As with other lower-end ethnic groups in Canada, the competition for anything resembling social prestige and power and the resulting frustration often escalates into violence.Within the Aboriginal groups, substance abuse, physical and sexual violence, and suicides are all too Common place (Adelson, 2005). Domestic violence statistics are high, with 39 percent of this population reporting such instances (Adelson, 2005). According to the 1999 published statistics 38 percent of reported deaths between young people ages 10 to 19 are due to suicide caused by the hopelessness of povert y and lack of social power (Adelson, 2005).Although the Aboriginal groups that still live on-reserve are receiving government healthcare services, these services are not necessarily of the quality the rest of the population is getting due to the government’s inability to control First Nation treaty resources and the seemingly endless â€Å"bureaucratic maze† regarding Aboriginal healthcare policy and insufficient funding (Adelson, 2005, p. 45). Within the past three decades, there has been a notable shift in the Canadian population.While the charter groups still comprised about 50 percent of the population, numerous other non-charter groups were rapidly combining to represent about one-third of the overall population (Driedger, 2001). Immigration pattern changes that began following the Second World War are largely responsible for a greater number of Southeast Asians and Latin Americans to relocate to Canada (Driedger, 2001). By the 1980s, the number of British Canadia ns began to rapidly slip and by 2001, while the British ranked ninth in population, 73 percent of immigrant settlers were either Asian, Latin American, or African (Gyimah et al, 2005).Meanwhile, despite Canadian policymakers’ best intentions, social inequality persists because many of these immigrant classes are being denied their rightful participation in society. Although the French charter remains strong albeit geographically and culturally segregated and the British majority is floundering, the class determinants of charter membership and its perks that enable social inequality to continue are still in place.The British population decrease has in no way adversely impacted their prestigious position or political influence. English is still the dominant language and European ancestry determines esteemed class status. Unfortunately, as long as access to prestige, power, and wealth remain limited to the charter few at the expense of the multicultural many, Canada’s soc ial classes will sadly remain unequal. References Adelson, N. (2005). The embodiment of inequity: Health disparities in Aboriginal Canada.Canadian Journal of Public Health, 96(2), 45-61. Driedger, L. (2001). Changing visions in ethnic relations. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 26(3), 421-451. Gyimah, S. O. , Walters, D. , ; Phythian, K. L. (2005). Ethnicity, immigration and housing wealth in Toronto. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 14(2), 338-363. Hier, S. P. , ; Walby, K. (2006). Competing analytical paradigms in the sociological study of racism in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal, 26(1), 83-104.Macionis, J. J. , ; Gerber, L. M. (2006). Sociology (6th Canadian Ed. ). Retrieved May 21, 2008, from http://wps. pearsoned. ca/ca_ph_macionis_sociology_6/73/18923/4844438. cw/index. html. Panitch, L. (1985, April). Class and power in Canada. Monthly Review, 36(11), 1-13. Reutter, L. I. , Veenstra, G. , Stewart, M. J. , Raphael, D. , Love, R. , Makwarimba, E. , ; McMurray, S. (200 6). Attributions for poverty in Canada. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 43(1), 1-22.

Analysis Of The Killer Angels - 1171 Words

Bravery can make a big difference in the outcome of a battle as this has been demonstrated in the book we read, The Killer Angels. Though sometimes bravery can also be a very foolish act, such as when you don’t make the best decisions for everyone as a whole. Foolishness when making important decisions can comeback and cost you later, possibly causing loss of lives and changing the momentum of a battle. There are some cases in this book, The Killer Angels, that prove bravery can be a good thing and that it can make a huge difference. I think that bravery is a good characteristic for leaders to have especially when the leaders use their actions to set an example and inspire bravery among those soldiers who may be hesitant to fight. There are multiple examples, throughout this book, of bravery and how courage has changed the outcome of a battle or prevented disaster. 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